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Sidorov
Участник
Postomania
To Хэнк-Henry
To мимо проходил Бегемот-Кащей-999

– Опять! – горестно воскликнул Филипп Филиппович, – ну, теперь, стало быть,
пошло! Пропал калабуховский дом! Придется уезжать, но куда, спрашивается?
Все будет как по маслу. Вначале каждый вечер пение, затем в сортирах замерзнут
трубы, потом лопнет котел в паровом отоплении, и так далее. Крышка Калабухову!

(с) Михаил Булгаков. Собачье сердце.



Сообщение изменено Sidorov от 2011-07-04 20:21:56
IP
meybe 07
Участник
To Хэнк
цитата:
Как же связаться с потусторонним миром, с душой умершего человека? Для этого необходим радиоприемник и компьютер. Выбираем частоту. Частота может быть любой, в зависимости от загруженности, чтобы было меньше шумов. Подаем аудиосигнал на компьютер и пишем 30-40 секунд. Если надеть наушники и применить некоторые фильтры, которые обрезают ненужные частоты, то с вероятностью 95% мы услышим в 30-ти секундном ролике 2-3 фразы, обращенные именно к конкретному человеку, который сидит рядом. Любо это будет объяснение ситуации, которая сдесь происходит, какие-то комментарии, либо это будет какой-нибудь вопрос.
Подобные исследования ведутся сегодня в 16 странах мира. Ученые Америки, где ежегодно проходит международный семинар по транскоммуникациям, работают уже не только с голосами умерших. Инженеры пытаются сконструировать устройство, в котором, как в телевизоре, будет появляться изображение покойного собеседника.

цитата:
Другие исследователи пытались для контактов с духами использовать современные технологии. Маркони, усовершенствовавший радиосвязь, в 1937 г. работал над спиритуалистической версией своего изобретения. В 1962 г. английский инженер-электрик Марк Дайн заявил, что он связался с духами с помощью азбуки Морзе, используя зуммер или лампу. Дайн был убежден, что духи могли посылать как звуковые, так и визуальные сигналы тем же способом, каким передаются радио- и телевизионные сигналы: через невидимую вибрацию в атмосфере. Зная длину волны и частоту, можно получать послания.


Эт чо, на полном серьезе?!
IP
мимо проходил
Участник
To Хэнк
цитата:
Нет, конечно. Крейн - кандидат филологических наук.

Филилогия - совокупность наук о языке, художественной литературе и культуре народов.

ВТОРАЯ СИГНАЛЬНАЯ СИСТЕМА - Языковая форма коммуникации как ведущая форма обмена информацией между людьми.
IP
мимо проходил
Участник
To Sidorov
Вы упрекаете Бегемота, за то, что он, возразив ,поругался и тем самым занял Вашу нишу?
Напрасно ревнуете, он сообщил, что больше не будет.
IP
ivi06
Участник
petitio principii. Nihil nisi bene
licq:2645
Предположу, что только в чём-то равновеликие таланты могут подолгу беседовать друг с другом на любом эмоциональном уровне... и это радует.
-Поскольку душа божественна, следовательно имеет внеземные корни, основания.
-В современном мире никого не удивит утверждение, что любой индивид с его внутренним миром представляет собою отдельную цивилизацию... с оговоркаим антилибералов, может быть.
-В результате, общение двух людей на духовном уровне уже есть контакт двух внеземных цивилизаций в расширительном смысле используемых понятий и, если угодно, отражение внеземного контакта на земную плоскость измышлений...
Отсутствие контакта между скоплениями биомасс на массивных объектах Вселенной с использованием современных средств связи может говорить о многом. Например о том, что во Вселенной из рук вон плохо поставлена организация вселенской психологической и педагогической помощи - по аналогии с общеземной - потому что только педагоги и психологи обязаны общаться с паствой, с разными формами и даже содержаниями интеллекта не ради политической власти, а ради высшей ценности - Бытия... предположу, что сверзадача землян - стать вселенскими миссионерами, насаждая Религию в космосе. И в данном контексте вопиющий во вселенском пространстве контактёр делает благое дело и скоро то время, когда контактёрство станет модным и вселенский интеллект возведёт в ранг святого, а может быть и мученика - экзопионера... мечталось бы, чтобы он был с Земли. Аминь.
Сообщение изменено ivi06 от 2011-07-04 19:35:10
IP
Бегемот
Участник
который кот..
To Sidorov
цитата:
To Бегемот-Кащей-999 и мимо проходил

Очевидно, Сидоров думает, что иметь знакомых, друзей или братьев имеет право только он.
Успокойся, "мимо проходил" появился здесь потому, что не мог до меня дозвониться и решил связаться по личке.
IP
Хэнк
Участник
licq:2152
To meybe 07
цитата:
Эт чо, на полном серьезе?!

На самом деле народ чем-то не занимается с нормальной научной техникой. С духами разговаривают, инопланетянам послания шлют

To мимо проходил
цитата:
Филилогия - совокупность

Бегемот, из тебя даже Капитана Очевидности не вышло. Хотя твою новую тактику писать только словарные определения поддерживаю, так риск ляпов сводится к минимуму.

To Sidorov-Reader-Крыша-Palindrom

Сообщение изменено Хэнк от 2011-07-04 19:43:16
IP
Хэнк
Участник
licq:2152
To ivi06
цитата:
вопиющий во вселенском пространстве контактёр делает благое дело

Все время вспоминается идущая по ТВ реклама фильма Трансформеры - "Информация о нашей планете была разглашена! Вы совершили чудовищную ошибку!... " Так что вопящий в пространстве может и накликать на всех Дарта Вейдера, о чем контактеры втайне мечтают, раз постоянно его поминают.
IP
lb
Модератор
licq:3079
To Хэнк
(Крыша) надо писать в скобках...
IP
Бегемот
Участник
который кот..
To Хэнк
цитата:
писать только словарные определения

Нет ничего удивительного, что для человека, не способного увидеть общий знаменатель в двух формулировках:
цитата:
Релакса́ция (от лат. relaxatio — ослабление, расслабление) — глубокое мышечное расслабление, сопровождающееся снятием психического напряжения.
и
Релаксация (от лат. relaxatio — ослабление, уменьшение) — процесс установления термодинамического, а следовательно, и статистического равновесия в физической системе, состоящей из большого числа частиц.

- простых определений для самостоятельного вывода не достаточно - ему требуется разжевать.
О чём, признаться, я и отписал мимо проходил в личку...
IP
lb
Модератор
licq:3079
To meybe 07
цитата:
Эт чо, на полном серьезе?!
Всё это полной оффтоп даже в этой сюрреалистической теме. Досадно, что вместо изучения решений Ватиканских соборов и папских посланий, а также, разумеется, святоотеческого наследия и бессмерных эпистол Олега Стеняева все занялись ерундой.
Проблема же отношения религий к внеземному разуму есть, и она вовсе еще не раскрыта. Даже в самом минимальном изложении.
IP
BBC
Модератор
нашего двора
To lb
цитата:
Проблема же отношения религий к внеземному разуму есть, и она вовсе еще не раскрыта. Даже в самом минимальном изложении.

Нет внеземного разума, нет и проблемы...
IP
ivi06
Участник
petitio principii. Nihil nisi bene
licq:2645
To lb
цитата:
сюрреалистической
Я плачу... дорвался до локалки.
Сообщение изменено ivi06 от 2011-07-04 20:03:48
IP
Бегемот
Участник
который кот..
To lb
цитата:
Проблема же отношения религий к внеземному разуму есть, и она вовсе еще не раскрыта.

Вы меня, конечно, извините - ни в коем разе не желаю вмешивать в Ваши дела модератора.. но отношения именно религий к внеземному разуму, всё же, больше вероятности найти среди представителей этих религий.. то есть там, где они чаще бывают

Сообщение изменено Бегемот от 2011-07-04 20:04:35
IP
Хэнк
Участник
licq:2152
To Бегемот
цитата:
Вы упрекаете Бегемота, за то, что он, возразив ,поругался и тем самым занял Вашу нишу? Напрасно ревнуете, он сообщил, что больше не будет.
цитата:
Успокойся, "мимо проходил" появился здесь потому, что не мог до меня дозвониться и решил связаться по личке.

цитата:
О чём, признаться, я и отписал мимо проходил в личку...

Я не думаю, что внутренние беседы двух из 999 бегемотов могут интересовать кого-либо, кроме врачей, а врачи все в ПиО.

To BBC
цитата:
Нет внеземного разума, нет и проблемы...

Точнее - будет внеземной разум, будет и проблема.
IP
ivi06
Участник
petitio principii. Nihil nisi bene
licq:2645
To Хэнк
цитата:
вопящий
Спасибо, но автор имеет право на ошибочную многозначительность и свободу в ударениях Приятно, что основополагающая часть поста не вызывает концептуальных возражений
Сообщение изменено ivi06 от 2011-07-04 20:47:50
IP
Sidorov
Участник
Postomania
цитата:
Проблема же отношения религий к внеземному разуму есть, и она вовсе еще не раскрыта. Даже в самом минимальном изложении.
в раздел "Религия" эту тему для максимального раскрытия

отношения религий к внеземному разуму есть сугубо религиозная тема
цитата:
Одобрили (2)

ivi06 -- автор этой темы

Sidorov


Сообщение изменено Sidorov от 2011-07-04 20:41:22
IP
lb
Модератор
licq:3079
У предложенной темы есть и вторая сторона - обратное влияние внеземного разума на религии. Что уже вовсе не "сугубо религиозная тема". Это задача исторического аспекта дискредитации базовых религиозных воззрений (некоторых религий) об уникальности человека, сотворенного по образу и подобию. И если почти без физического инструментария многие мыслители прежних веков защищали идею множественности разумных миров (и страдали за такие идеи), то в наше время совсем уж стыдно читать такие перлы как
цитата:
Нет внеземного разума, нет и проблемы...
IP
Sidorov
Участник
Postomania
цитата:
Нет внеземного разума, нет и проблемы...
слово "внеземной" здесь явно лишнее...
IP
Хэнк
Участник
licq:2152
To lb
цитата:
У предложенной темы есть и вторая сторона
Ну, тогда можно в КиНе рассуждать и о том, что атеизм рухнет, потому что будет Второе Пришествие. Это тоже означает "дискредитацию" основных положений атеизма.

Жаль, что ушлые религиозники уже вывернулись из истории с индейцами, про которых в Библии ни слова не было, сперва отмазались насчет того, что это потерянное израильское колено, а потом уже, облегченно вздохнув, приведя данные науки, что индейцы пришли из Азии, а не завелись в Америке от тамошних обезьян.
Сейчас про эту проблему никто уже и не вспоминает.
Сообщение изменено Хэнк от 2011-07-04 23:16:20
IP
lb
Модератор
licq:3079
To ivi06
Хочу предложить вам тему для монографии: "История религий внеземных цивилизаций". С учетом заведомой презумпции и непреложной априорности великолепное пиквикское чтение может получиться!
IP
ivi06
Участник
petitio principii. Nihil nisi bene
licq:2645
To lb
Без вопросов, любая внеземная цивилизация обязана иметь Религию. Но закавыка в том, что пути развития Веры не всегда приводят к монотеизму. Ахурамаздра всегда имеет сопутствующих богов, и вообще, хорошему всегда сопутствует плохое под некими конкретными наименованеиями типа ангелы и демоны, а иногда тезису с антитезисом сопутствует и синтезис... есть, наверное, во Вселенной процессы, множества, которые не лежат в прокрустовом ложе естественного отбора систем на ограниченном пространственно-временном промежутке
IP
Сообщение отправленное Черносотенец от 12-07-2011 04:24:30 скрыто модератором
Sidorov
Участник
Postomania
Интересная статья только что (7 июля 2011) появилась:

A Model of Habitability Within the Milky Way Galaxy

(Модель обитаемости в нашей Галактике)

http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/1107/1107.1286v1.pdf

IP
Sidorov
Участник
Postomania
цитата:
Интересная статья только что (7 июля 2011) появилась:

A Model of Habitability Within the Milky Way Galaxy

(Модель обитаемости в нашей Галактике)

http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/1107/1107.1286v1.pdf
а здесь -- краткое изложение:

Astronomers Publish New Map of Galactic Habitable Zone

http://www.technologyreview.com/blog/arxiv/26984/?ref=rss

P.S. увы, аббревиатуры
и Gigahertz
и Galactic Habitable Zone
одинаково выглядят: GHZ

Сообщение изменено Sidorov от 2011-07-12 18:16:46
IP
ivi06
Участник
petitio principii. Nihil nisi bene
licq:2645
Ну и где тут про Религию?
4 Results
We have described a model of the Milky Way which reproduces well established physical
properties of the Galaxy and have produced a set of criteria that allows us to predict
where and when complex life might emerge. The parameters and criteria are summarized
in Table 3. We now present the results from our simulations.
The results are organized as follows. Ўм 4.1 describes the influence of SN sterilizations on
habitability in the Galaxy without considering planet formation. Ўм 4.2 includes constraints
on the time required for complex life to evolve, without considering planet formation. In
Ўм 4.3 we apply the SNe sterilizations and timescales for complex life to planet formation.
Ўм 4.4 discusses the GHZ in terms of radial distance and height above the midplane. Ўм 4.5
discusses the impact stellar kinematics would have on our models. In Ўм 4.6 we examine the
impact of the IMF on habitability. Finally, Ўм 4.7 compares our results with relevant studies.
4.1 The Effect of Supernovae Sterilizations on Habitability
In this section, stars that are close to SN events are investigated and planet formation is
ignored. We find that the majority of stars in our Galaxy will be bathed in flux by a
nearby SN event during their lifetimes. Figure 5 shows the number of stars in the Galaxy
that remain unsterilized. In this context, an unsterilized star refers to a star that has not
13
been sufficiently close to a SN event in its lifetime. Across all models, Ў«27%-36% of all
stars in the Galaxy remain unsterilized. The lowest fraction of unsterilized stars in all
models is located at RЎ«2.5 kpc due to the high stellar density in the region. We predict
that this fraction will be even lower at R<2.5 kpc, although we do not model this area.
To observe how sensitive stars are to sterilizations, we double the sterilization volume of
SNe in the simulation. When the sterilization volume is doubled, Ў«23% of all stars in the
Galaxy remain unsterilized (Figure 5-Upper panel). Doubling the sterilization volume does
not double the number of stars that experience a sterilization during their lifetimes because
some stars are sterilized multiple times. This analysis indicates that a major increase in
sterilization volume is unlikely to significantly reduce habitability within the Galaxy.
The probability that a star remains unsterilized by a SN event ranges from Ў«10-90%
in terms of galactocentric distance, and Ў«10-95% in terms of distance above the midplane
(Figure 6) across all models. We can conclude from this finding that the fraction of planets
expected to survive a SN event is much lower towards the centre of the Galaxy, and within
and close to the midplane. Comparing Models 1 and 4, which set the upper and lower limits
of non-sterilized stars at R=8 kpc, we find that between Ў«53% and Ў«36% of all stars remain
unsterilized at this radial position.
SNII and SNIa are implemented separately to reflect the differences in their sterilization
distances and progenitors. We find that in Model 1 SNII are responsible for more sterilizations
than their SNIa counterparts. There are Ў«10.3ЎБ more SNII than SNIa; however, SNII
only lead to Ў«1.8ЎБ more sterilizations. We estimate that an individual SNIa is Ў«5.7ЎБ more
lethal than a SNII on average. In Model 4, there are Ў«11.7ЎБ more SNII than SNIa; however,
SNII only lead to Ў«2.1ЎБ more sterilizations. An individual SNIa is roughly 5.6ЎБ more lethal
than a SNII in Model 4. Comparing the overall number of SNe, there are approximately
2ЎБ more SNII and 1.8ЎБ more SNIa in Model 4 than Model 1. The Kroupa IMF in Model 4
produces a much higher number density of SNe, despite the lower number of stars in the
model in comparison to Model 1.
4.2 Timescales for Complex Life Around Main Sequence Stars
Disregarding planet formation, we add a 4 Gyr time constraint corresponding to the timescale
required for the emergence of complex life. In this subsection we analyze the positions of
stars that are suitable for complex life when considering SNe sterilizations. Hence, the star
must have 1) a main sequence lifetime of at least 4 Gyr, and 2) remain unsterilized for a 4
Gyr period. If a star is sterilized during this period, the biospheres of orbiting planets could
be affected. In this scenario, SNe will have the effect of delaying the emergence of complex
life. The 4 Gyr constraint on those stars suitable for habitable planets is relaxed when
planet formation is considered in Section 4.3, where the assumptions for the development
of complex life in Section 3.4 are adopted.
Figure 7 presents the fraction of stars that are unsterilized for at least one period of 4
Gyr. Interestingly, the inner Galaxy contains a fraction of sterilized stars that nevertheless
exhibit a 4 Gyr unsterilized period that is suitable for complex life. Across all models, the
lowest fraction of stars that are 4 Gyr of age and remain unsterilized are located in the
inner Galaxy (Figure 7-Upper panel). This is expected, as the majority of stars in the inner
Galaxy are sterilized (Figures 5 and 6). The reverse phenomenon is demonstrated in the
outskirts of the Galaxy in all models; the majority of stars suitable for complex life are
unsterilized and at least 4 Gyr of age. Due to the declining stellar density as a function of
radial distance, there are more stars in total that would permit the emergence of complex
14
life in the inner Galaxy than the outer Galaxy. A high stellar density corresponding to a
high SN rate would completely inhibit the emergence of complex life. At R&2.5 kpc there
are no locations where this occurs, given the assumptions made in our model.
In the middle and bottom panels of Figure 7, the fraction of stars with 4 Gyr lifespans
declines at R&12 kpc, as many of the stars in the region are not 4 Gyr of age; therefore,
these stars are less habitable than those at R<12kpc. Furthermore, the fraction of stars that
have 4 Gyr periods where they are unsterilized by SNe across the disk is higher in Model 1
in comparison to Model 4, as the Salpeter IMF produces fewer SNe than the Kroupa IMF.
4.3 The Effect of Metallicity on Planet Formation With Respect
to Habitability
We now present our model of habitability with regards to planet formation as influenced by
the metallicity gradient in the disk of the Milky Way galaxy. Section 4.2 discussed stars that
are good candidates for habitable planets. Two criteria in assessing the habitability of these
stars were implemented: 1) the star must have a main sequence lifetime of at least 4 Gyr
and 2) the star must remain free from sterilizing SNe events for a period of 4 Gyr. Requiring
criteria (2) is a strict prerequisite and does not reflect the impact SNe would have on our
Earth-analogs given the major events that have transpired in EarthЎЇs history. For example,
a SN would have no effect on a planet that has not formed an ozone layer. These milestones
were reviewed in Ўм 3.4, and the results of their implementation are presented in this section.
In this section, we highlight the results of Models 1 and 4 in parts of our analysis, as they
most closely constrain the local number density in the solar neighbourhood. Note that the
Galaxy is best represented by the Kroupa IMF, and therefore we can expect Model 4 to
best represent habitability within the Galaxy.
We find that the greatest number of habitable planets exist in the inner Galaxy in all
of our models. More specifically, 50% of the habitable planets lie at R<4.1 kpc and R<4.4
kpc in Models 1 and 4 respectively. The high stellar number density towards the centre
of the Galaxy and the high degree of metallicity are responsible for permitting more stars
to have habitable planets in this region in comparison to the middle and outer Galaxy
(Figure 8). Moreover, star formation occurs earlier in the inner Galaxy, permitting longer
periods for the emergence of complex life. Furthermore, when comparing the age distribution
of stars in the inner, middle, and outer regions of the Galaxy, the inner region allows for
a greater chance of attaining habitable conditions in comparison to younger stars in the
middle and outer regions of the disk. The high stellar number density in the inner Galaxy
and subsequent sterilization rate does not completely frustrate the emergence of complex
life in the region. As mentioned previously, only one major planet forms around a star in the
work of Ida and Lin (2005); therefore, the number of habitable planets is underestimated
here.
With respect to the fraction of habitable planets, we predict that between ЎЦ1.2%
(Model 4) and ЎЦ1.7% (Model 1) of all stars host a habitable planet. More specifically, in
Model 1, 1.60% of stars host a tidally-locked HZ planet and 0.09% of stars host a non-locked
HZ planet. In Model 4, 0.9% of planets are tidally locked, and 0.3% are in a non-locked
configuration with their host star. The Salpeter IMF (Model 1) leads to more low mass stars
whose companions become tidally locked on short timescales. However, the Kroupa IMF
(Model 4) leads to higher mass stars, permitting more planets in a non-locked configuration.
In our model, the mix of locked and non-locked planets is constant throughout the Galactic
disk. The area with the greatest fraction of habitable planets over all epochs is located
15
towards the centre of the Galaxy, as shown in Figure 9.
From Sections 4.1 and 4.2, we see that SN sterilizations on their own make the inner
Galaxy the least hospitable for complex life. However, regarding the planet-metallicity
correlation without the effects of SNe makes the inner Galaxy the most hospitable for
complex life. When both factors are taken into account, the inner Galaxy is Ў«10ЎБ more
hospitable than the outer Galaxy (Figure 9). This finding indicates that the impact of
metallicity on planet formation appears to dominate over the effects of SN sterilizations.
Furthermore, the inside-out scenario of Galaxy formation permits the inner region to be
more habitable than the outskirts. Neither SN sterilizations nor metal-poor environments
are capable of rendering any region inhospitable to complex life at the present day.
With respect to time, we investigate 1) the formation date (birth date) of habitable
planets, and 2) the time in a planetЎЇs history when it becomes habitable. Figure 10 shows
the locations and birth dates of planets that are habitable at the present day. All of our
models indicate that most of the habitable planets are located in the inner Galaxy. We find
that our solar system is younger and distant from the densest regions that host habitable
planets. In addition, our results indicate that the average birth date of planets occurs 4.06
Gya, and 3.94 Gya in Model 1 and 4 respectively. Thus, many planets are too young to
permit the evolution of complex life. Over the next Gyr, many more planets are expected
to attain habitable conditions given the assumptions made in our model.
With respect to when planets attain habitable conditions, the top panel of Figures 11
and 12 demonstrate that habitable planets have emerged for the past Ў«6 Gyr near the
Galactic centre (R&2.5 kpc), whereas they have become habitable at Ў«4 Gya in the middle
region, and at Ў«1-2 Gya in the periphery. The SFR experienced in the last few billion
years, coupled with increasing levels of metallicity, suggests that many more planets will be
conducive to complex life in the future.
Tracing the habitability history of planets over all epochs shows that at the present
day, the fraction of stars hosting planets with habitable conditions is greatest at RЎ«2.5 kpc
(Figures 11 and 12- Top Right panel). The inner Galaxy has the greatest fraction of stars
with a habitable planet integrated over all periods of time (Figure 9), and at the present
day.
4.4 The Location of the GHZ
The GHZ is thought to be affected by an inner boundary that is determined by hazards
to planetary biospheres, and an outer boundary set by the minimum amount of metallicity
required for planet formation (Gonzalez et al., 2001). This outlook describes the GHZ as
a function of radial distance. However, we model concentrations of habitable planets with
respect to galactocentric distance (R) and height above the midplane (z).
The bottom left panels of Figures 11 and 12 illustrate that the greatest number of
habitable planets over all epochs is located in the inner Galaxy, within and surrounding the
midplane. This region coincides with the greatest stellar number density in the model. Most
planets in this densely populated area will be sufficiently close to SNe, but the frequency
of ozone depletion events is not high enough to permit large volumes of the Galaxy to be
sterile for long timescales.
In the bottom right panels of Figures 11 and 12 it is observed that the region with the
greatest fraction of stars with habitable planets over all epochs is located in the inner Galaxy,
well above the midplane, centred at a height of zЎ«1.5 kpc. The same radial mix of metals
at this location above the midplane combined with the low stellar density in comparison
16
to the density found closer to the midplane suggests that SNe have a significant impact on
habitability. The fraction of stars with habitable planets above the midplane is a factor of
a few greater than the fraction at the midplane at RЎ«2.5 kpc.
We observe that the greatest number density and fraction of habitable planets is located
in the inner Galaxy, integrated over all epochs. These findings suggest that our location
in the Galaxy is not particularly favourable under this GHZ paradigm. We find that the
GHZ, defined as the position with the greatest number of complex life supporting habitable
planets, is located in the inner Galaxy, within and surrounding the midplane.
4.5 Stellar Kinematics
The motions of stars are not considered in our model. Solar systems passing through dense
regions of the Galaxy are more likely to be sterilized by SNe. The lack of stellar kinematics
would be a major concern if we found a continuously sterilized zone (CSZ), wherein an entire
section of the Galaxy is uninhabitable as a result of transient radiation events, effectively
sterilizing stars that pass through the region. However, the fraction of habitable planets in
the densest region (at the midplane in the inner Galaxy) is not significantly lower than most
of the other parts of the Galaxy. Therefore, if the orbits of stars were modelled in the present
study, we would not expect a major decrease in habitable systems as a result of traversal
through high density regions. Given the results presented in this study, neither radial or
vertical motion presents a major concern. In the radial case, if a star in the midplane (zЎ«0
pc) moves inwards towards the Galactic centre, the star will be in an area where the fraction
of stars with habitable planets increases (Figures 11 and 12-Bottom left panels), therefore,
the SNe rate cannot be great enough to inhibit habitability in the majority of solar systems
with radial components to their motion. In the vertical case, if a star in a low density region
above the midplane (e.g. RЎ«2.5 kpc and zЎ«2 kpc) plunges towards the midplane, the
fraction of habitable planets only decreases by a factor of Ў«2-3 (Figures 11 and 12- Bottom
right panels). The slightly decreasing fraction of habitable planets towards the midplane
at RЎ«2.5 kpc suggests that vertical motion cannot be responsible for a major decrease in
habitability. If vertical stellar motions are taken into account, the vertical gradient of the
fraction of habitable planets is likely to be reduced. Further research on habitability in
the Galactic bulge in combination with stellar kinematics is necessary to determine if dense
regions have a significant impact on habitability. If a large CSZ exists in the inner disk or
the bulge, stars that reside in the region, or those stars in eccentric orbits that pass through
the region, may not have planets that can support complex life as defined in this study.
4.6 The Impact of the IMF on Habitability
We present four models to see how sensitive our model is to varying properties of the Galaxy.
A Salpeter IMF is utilized to assign masses to the stars in Models 1 and 3 and the Kroupa
IMF is used in Models 2 and 4.
Comparing Models 1 and 4, we see that the former has a lower SNe rate than the latter.
There are Ў«1.8ЎБ more SNII and Ў«1.7ЎБ more SNIa in the models with the Kroupa IMF
in comparison to those with the Salpeter IMF. Taking the SNe rates in consideration on
their own makes the Galaxy less hospitable for complex life when the Kroupa IMF is used
to assign masses to our stars. However, when comparing the fraction of stars that host
habitable planets in a non-locked configuration (Figure 9), the Kroupa IMF produces more
high mass stars permitting many more planets to orbit their hosts in a non-tidally locked
17
configuration in their HZ in comparison to planets formed in the models containing the
Salpeter IMF. Evidence suggests that the Galaxy follows the Kroupa IMF; therefore, we
expect Ў«0.3% of stars to host a planet capable of harbouring complex life that orbits in a
non-locked configuration.
4.7 Comparison with other Studies
Prantzos (2008) suggests that the concept of the GHZ may have very little significance,
and that it should be considered only as a framework to organize our ideas about life
in our Galaxy. While it is understood that further research is required to better answer
questions related to habitability on the Galactic scale, we do believe that these factors
can be quantified at present with useful results. It is certain that a sufficiently nearby SN
would have a sterilizing impact on land-based life on Earth, and the evolution of biologically
complex life took a substantial amount of time on our planet. Studies of this nature imply
uncertainties that require us to make reasoned assumptions concerning habitability. In the
future, these assumptions will be replaced with observational fact.
In this subsection we compare key differences between the present study and the related
literature. Unlike previous approaches, our simulation models each star individually. While
such a star-based model incurs increased memory and computational costs, it potentially
affords more realistic and informative results than traditional probabilistic models that
aggregate over stellar populations. The contrasting methods and results are reviewed, some
of which have been described or alluded to in previous sections.
4.7.1 Model Milky Way Galaxies
The buildup of the Galactic stellar mass reported in Prantzos (2008) and the present study
is roughly consistent. The SFH employed in Prantzos (2008), Lineweaver et al. (2004), and
our model, has an early burst of star formation as illustrated in the upper and middle
panels of Figure 1. The average metallicity assigned to each star in our model (Figure 1
- lower panel), is roughly consistent with the metallicity found in Lineweaver et al. (2004).
The measure of metallicity in Prantzos (2008) is different than ours; therefore, a direct
comparison is not possible.
4.7.2 Supernovae Rates and Sterilization Distances
Our research addresses the danger effect of SNe using a different approach than that of
Prantzos (2008) and Lineweaver et al. (2004). Numerous studies in the field show that SNIa
and SNII have different distributions of luminosities (Richardson et al., 2002; Wang et al.,
2006). Our model accounts for this using a distribution of sterilization distances for SNII and
SNIa. Conversely, Prantzos (2008) and Lineweaver et al. (2004) assess the SN danger factor
as a time integrated supernova rate. Treating SN events in our model on an individual basis
within the pre-existing stellar population improves on the statistical approaches of other
studies, as it is a more realistic, less Earth-centric method. Our model does not assess the
danger posed by SNe as normalized to the EarthЎЇs radial position.
4.7.3 Metallicity and Planet Formation
There are few studies that predict the number of habitable planets in the Milky Way
(Lineweaver, 2001; Bounamam et al., 2007; Guo et al., 2009). We use a metallicity pro-
18
file (Naab and Ostriker, 2006) to assign a metallicity to each star in the model. We use this
metallicity to model planet formation. Considering that Prantzos (2008) uses a constant
probability of stars forming an Earth-like planet (40%), as influenced by Lineweaver (2001),
our model contains far fewer habitable planets. Moreover, the danger of a Hot Jupiter
inhibiting an Earth-like planet in our study is similar to Prantzos (2008), as we share the
results by Fischer and Valenti (2005), producing a much lower Hot Jupiter danger effect
than that of Lineweaver et al. (2004).
4.7.4 Comparison of Results
The GHZ is an area in the Galaxy that contains stars with the highest potential to harbour
complex life. Lineweaver et al. (2004) find the GHZ to be an annular region between 7
and 9 kpc at the present day. Our results fundamentally disagree with Lineweaver et al.
(2004), as we find that the greatest number of habitable planets exist in the inner Galaxy.
However, we recognize that the model Galaxy produced by Fenner and Gibson (2003) and
employed in Lineweaver et al. (2004) is more advanced than our model in certain regards.
Their model contains a more accurate depiction of the observed properties of the Galaxy
such as considering the SFR in conjunction with spiral arm motions.
We expect that as the metallicity increases, the entire disk is expected to harbor a greater
number and fraction of habitable planets. This result is similar to that of Prantzos (2008).
Moreover, we find that the number of habitable planets varies as a function of height above
the midplane. This was not investigated in Lineweaver et al. (2004) or Prantzos (2008), and
therefore we observe that the morphology of the GHZ is not an annular region as suggested
in Lineweaver et al. (2004), or the entire disk as discussed in Prantzos (2008), but rather
consists of a region highly dependant on radial distance, located near the centre of the
Galaxy.
Habitability may be reduced at RЎ«2.5 kpc as a result of the high stellar density in
combination with stellar motions, and will be investigated in future research concerning
the Galactic bulge. Nonetheless, our prediction that many habitable planets exist at the
midplane in the inner Galaxy suggests that habitable conditions are possible in high density
regions.
The dominant paradigm of habitability on the Galactic scale is certain to change in this
field as we learn more about our Galaxy and habitable planets. Studies relating to the
distribution of habitable planets, extraterrestrial life and colonization of the Galaxy (see
Bounamam et al., 2007; Forgan, 2009) currently rely on the canonicalmodel by Lineweaver et al.
(2004). Our revised conception of the GHZ has implications for these and other related studies.
5 Conclusions
We present a model of habitability within the Milky Way to predict the region(s) in the
Galaxy that are expected to favour the emergence of complex life. We do not find that
the inner Galaxy is entirely inhospitable to life; in fact, the greatest number of habitable
planets are found in this region. The metallicity in the inner Galaxy produces a high
planet formation rate for long timescales that dominates the negative impact SNe have on
habitability. Furthermore, we observe that over all epochs in our favoured Model (Model 4),
1.2% of all stars in the Galaxy host a habitable planet (including both tidally locked and nonlocked
configurations). The fraction of stars with a habitable planet ranges from Ў«0.25%
19
in the outer Galaxy to Ў«2.7% in the inner Galaxy. Considering that we find the greatest
number of habitable planets to be located in and around the midplane at RЎ«2.5 kpc, and
that the greatest fraction of stars that support habitable planets exist above and below the
midplane at this radial position, we find that the inner region of the Galaxy may support
the greatest number of planets conducive to complex life. More specifically, our findings
are at odds with the notion that the GHZ is shaped like an annular ring at RЎ«7-9 kpc at
the present day, as found by Lineweaver et al. (2004). Similarly to Prantzos (2008), we find
the greatest number of habitable planets to exist in the inner Galaxy, with the exception
that we observe habitable planets at this radial position to be strongly dependent on height
above and below the Galactic midplane.
Given that we find the greatest concentration of habitable planets to be located in the
inner Galaxy, further research on the disk and overlapping bulge at R.2.5 kpc is warranted.
The inner boundary of the GHZ is defined by hazards to a planetЎЇs biosphere
(Gonzalez et al., 2001); however, we find that an inner boundary does not exist when modelling
the Galactic disk at R&2.5 kpc. By modelling the region at R.2.5 kpc, we might find
an inner boundary, or we might not find a boundary at all.
Studies of habitability on the Galactic scale will improve in the future as Earth-like planets
are detected from studies such as the Kepler mission (Borucki et al., 2008), and will benefit
from an improved understanding of our Galaxy from the GAIA mission (Perryman et al.,
2001), and others.
The results of planet finding missions will yield estimates of the total number of planets
in the HZ of their host stars across the Galactic disk. The total number of habitable planets
estimated here is not the focus of our research; rather, we highlight and predict that these
planets exist preferentially in the inner Galaxy, and that they have the ability to survive
SN sterilization events for periods conducive to the ri
IP
Sidorov
Участник
Postomania
To ivi06
цитата:
Ну и где тут про Религию?
тут про Вселенную для пополнения знаний, дабы вести дискуссию
цитата:
Внеземные цивилизации и Религия
не на допотопном, а на современном уровне...

а свою простыню с текстом убери, ivi06...

IP
Sidorov
Участник
Postomania
У моего американского коллеги Ричарда Браастада,
менеджера проектов Cosmic Call и Cosmic Call 2
магистерская диссертация на тему

Extraterrestrial Sermons

("Проповеди инопланетян")




Сообщение изменено Sidorov от 2011-07-12 20:37:38
IP
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